The Psychedelic Effects Of D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-25 (LSD) Were

The psychedelic effects of d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide-25 (LSD) were discovered by Dr. Albert Hoffman by accident in 1938. In the 1950s and 1960s, LSD was used by psychiatrists for analytic psychotherapy. It was thought that the administration of LSD could aid the patient in releasing repressed material. It was also suggested that psychiatrists themselves might develop more insight into the pathology of a diseased mind through self experimentation. 1,2 During the late 60s, LSD became popular as a recreational drug. While it has been suggested that recreational use of the drug has dropped, a recent report on CNN claimed that 4.4% of 8th graders have tried it. LSD is considered to be one of, if not the, most potent hallucinogenic drug known. Small doses of LSD (1/2 - 2 ug/kg body weight) result in a number of system wide effects that could be classified into somatic, psychological, cognitive, and perceptual categories. These effects can last between 5 and 14 hours. Table 1: Effects of LSD 1, 2, 3 Somatic Psychological Cognitive Perceptual mydriasis hallucinations disturbed thought processes increased stimulus from environment hyperglycemia depersonalization difficulty expressing thoughts changes in shape/color hyperthermia reliving of repressed memories impairment of reasoning synaesthesia (running together of sensory modalities) piloerection mood swings (related to set and setting) impairment of memory - esp. integration of short -> long term disturbed perception of time vomiting euphoria lachrymation megalomania hypotension schizophrenic-like state respiratory effects are stimulated at low doses and depressed at higher doses reduced "defenses", subject to "power of suggestion" brachycardia The study of hallucinogens such as LSD is fundamental to the neurosciences. Science thrives on mystery and contradiction; indeed without these it stagnates. The pronounced effects that hallucinogens have throughout the nervous system have served as potent demonstrations of d ifficult to explain behavior. The attempts to unravel the mechanisms of hallucinogens are closely tied to basic research in the physiology of neuroreceptors, neurotransmitters, neural structures, and their relation to behavior. This paper will first examine the relationship between neural activity and behavior. It will then discuss some of the neural populations and neurotransmitters that are believed to by effected by LSD. The paper will conclude with a more detailed discussion of possible ways that LSD can effect the neurotransmitter receptors which are probably ultimately responsible for its LSD. A Brief Foray Into Philosophy and the Cognitive Sciences Modern physics is divided by two descriptions of the universe: the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Many physicists have faith that at some point a "Grand Unified Theory" will be developed which will provide a unified description of the universe from subatomic particles to the movement of the planets. Like in physics, th e cognitive sciences can describe the brain at different levels of abstraction. For example, neurobiologists study brain function at the level of neurons while psychologists look for the laws describing behavior and cognitive mechanisms. Also like in physics, many in these fields believe that it is possible that one day we will be able to understand complicated behaviors in terms of neuronal mechanisms. Others believe that this unification isn't possible even in theory because there is some metaphysical quality to consciousness that transcends neural firing patterns. Even if consciousness can't be described by a "Grand Unified Theory" of the cognitive sciences, it is apparent that many of our cognitive mechanisms and behaviors can. While research on the level of neurons and psychological mechanisms is fairly well developed, the area in between these is rather murky. Some progress has been made however. Cognitive scientists have been able to associate mechanisms with areas of the bra in and have also been able to describe the effects on these systems by various neurotransmitters. For example, disruption of hippocampal activity has been found to result in a deficiency in consolidating short term to long term memory. Cognitive disorders such as Parkinson's disease can be traced to problems in dopaminergic pathways. Serotonin has been implicated in the etiology of various CNS disorders including depression, obsessive-compulsive behavior, schizophrenia, and nausea. It is also known to effect the cardiovascular and thermoregulatory systems as well as cognitive abilities such as learning and memory. The lack of knowledge in the middle ground between neurobiology and psychology makes a

Writing a Sample Rhetoric Essay

Writing a Sample Rhetoric EssayIf you're writing a sample rhetoric essay, do you know how to write the essay? Are you sure you have your logic right?Writing a great essay is one of the most difficult things that any student can try to do. Just like writing any other academic paper, a good one is constructed using several different styles. For a study of rhetoric, here are several key elements that you should be aware of.The goal of every essay is to make a point with a different style. One way to do this is to use two or more different styles of writing. Each essay could use a different structure for its arguments and then interweave them into each other.There are many different writers in the world, but if you want to be great at rhetoric, you must become one yourself. You need to put on your rhetorical hats. You need to learn the proper sentence structure and what's acceptable. If you can put those pieces together correctly, then you are already well on your way to learning rhetori c.When you're writing an essay on rhetoric, don't go over the top with each paragraph. Use many sentences that allow the reader to begin to understand the idea that you are trying to convey. Keep it short and simple and the chances are the reader will understand it. Try not to beat yourself up over it.In addition to this, the idea of writing an essay on rhetoric is to avoid getting bogged down in the details. No one likes to read a list of facts that do not seem to mean anything to them. Also, while it is important to present the argument, remember not to lose sight of the reader. You may have read something in a book or heard something in a radio broadcast and then decided that you really do not care about that. Don't assume that everyone is familiar with a particular argument you are making.Finally, remember that in the writing of an essay on rhetoric, you should use all of the rhetorical topics that you know about. After all, those are the things that are coming naturally to you. When you use your knowledge of a topic in your essay, it will make it easier for you to relate your ideas to the reader.If you take some time to really learn to write a good essay, you will find it easy to write another one. In fact, as you learn to write this way, you'll find that you can keep writing until you run out of things to say. That is, of course, unless you get bored and then it's back to the drawing board.